Abstract:

One of the essential parts of electric vehicles (EVs) is the lithium-ion battery (LIB), and the ecological effects of LIBs are crucial to the long-term sustainability of EVs. This study investigates the carbon footprint of LIBs produced in China using a cradle-to-cradle life-cycle assessment approach. The results can be summarized as follows; (1) The carbon emission from battery production is 91.21 kg CO2-eq/kWh, in which the cathode production and battery assembly process are the main sources of carbon emissions; (2) The carbon emission during the battery use phase under China's electricity mix which is dominated by thermal power in 2020 is 154.1 kg CO2-eq/kWh; (3) Hydrometallurgy is the battery recycling method with the lowest carbon emission, and direct physical recycling method has attractive carbon reduction potential; (4) The carbon emission of battery remanufacturing through recycled materials is 51.8% lower than that of battery production with raw materials. Under the future electricity mix, the carbon emissions of battery production in 2050 and 2060 will be reduced by 75% and 84.9%, respectively. The short-term carbon reduction measure is battery recycling, and the long-term carbon reduction measure is the greening of electricity.